Information included in this article was taken from the following sources:
The Rosemere Neighborhood Association, Vancouver, WA; Addy Labs, Vancouver WA;Thom McConathy, Clark County Natural Resource Council, Vancouver, WA; The Chlorine Chemistry Council 12 June 1997; Corpus Christi Times, July 19, 2002; University of Minnesota College of Agriculture, Food & Environmental Services; The Association of New Jersey Environmental Commissions; Is Our Water Safe to Drink? By J. Gorden Millichap, MD; San Francisco Chronicle Jan 5, 2003; The Water Quality and Health Council; the Clark County Health Department (Formerly the Southwest Washington Health District); The Washington State Department of Health; The Washington State Department of Ecology
Private Wells
Well water quality is just as important as quantity, but easier to overlook. There is rarely a clear signal when microorganisms, nitrates, pesticides or VOG’s (volatile organic compounds) contaminate well water. Yet these contaminates do make their way into private wells. Homeowners who choose the “blinders” approach, assuming that their well water is OK, are taking a gamble with their health. The potential risks are kidney and nervous system damage, intestinal illness, cancer and birth defects. According to a US Geological Survey, many wells in Clark County and Vancouver were tested and found to contain contaminates.
When a house with a well is purchased, Title Companies and lending institutions require these private wells to be tested, with results reviewed by both the buyer and the seller. However, you should not wait until you sell your house to test your well. Groundwater is a shared resource from which we get the source of our drinking water. The groundwater in Clark County and Vancouver moves exceptionally fast due to the layers of sand and gravel that pervade the landscape here. Compared to other parts of the country where groundwater movement is measured in feet per year, the groundwater in Clark County and Vancouver can be measured in feet per day. Therefore, contaminants can move very quickly through the groundwater, and private wells can become spoiled very easily.
Private wells should be tested for total fecal coliform bacteria (e.coli), nitrates, iron, manganese, pH, lead and all VOC’s for which state regulations have established maximum contaminant levels. VOC’s are substances like benzene and trichloroetheylene. Testing should also be conducted for arsenic, mercury and gross alpha particle activity including radium. Radiation contaminates from the Hanford Nuclear Facility are present in the Columbia River flow, and this contamination could migrate into other waterways as well as groundwater.
Contamination can come from areas that are not immediately adjacent to your property. Your well can become contaminated from chemical fertilizers or organic wastes that cause nitrate pollution from agricultural areas. Lead and mercury can leach into groundwater from industrial sites or landfills, and lead can also contaminate household water if the indoor plumbing is fused with lead based solder or if lead is in bathroom fixtures. Pesticides, including arsenic, migrate into well water from farms, golf courses, or industrial sites. These sources of pollution can travel great distances through groundwater and poison your well.
Regular testing of your well is very important. Analysis for coliform bacteria and nitrate is relatively simple and inexpensive, and elevated levels of either contaminate can indicate there is a pathway along which contamination is reaching the well. Throughout the country, well testing is recommended at least once a year. Due to the fast moving groundwater in Clark County, well water should be tested more frequently. When you test your well water, keep accurate records of the results so you can track and compare any changes that happen in the quality of well water. This can be very helpful in determining if underground plumes begin to leach into the groundwater surrounding your property. For example, the Boomsnub Spill in Hazel Dell (a Superfund Site) sent toxic hexavalent chromium underground directly toward the main wellhead in Clark County that provided the majority of all drinking water for the area. The wellhead had to be closed down, and new wellheads had to be drilled to avoid this toxic plume. Other Superfund Sites in the Vancouver area include Frontier Hardchrome that was located on Grand Blvd (also a hexavalent chromium spill) and the contamination of municipal well #5 (on Blanford) resulting from a perchlorethylene spill from a Dry Cleaning business. These toxic spills, as well as many, many others, have contaminated and will continue to contaminate wells throughout our area.
Water tests for private wells should be analyzed at a certified laboratory. Check with the Clark County Health Department for a list of these laboratories. Water samples for bacteriological analysis should be collected in sterilized sample containers available from the laboratory.
The water sample should be collected from a single, cold, hard-water faucet. Do not draw water from the swivel-type faucet commonly found on kitchen sinks and laundry tubs. Remove the aerator if one is present, and allow the water to run briefly. Turn the water off and flame the faucet with a small propane torch or butane lighter. Heat the faucet until a layer of condensation appears and then disappears. Turn the faucet on and allow it to run at least five minutes. Collect the sample in the container provided and be careful not to touch the rim, inside, or lid of the container with fingers or the faucet. Samples must be analyzed for bacteria within 30 hours or the test results will not be accurate. Do not let the sample get too warm, sit in direct sunlight, or freeze. Although time is not as critical for inorganic measurements like nitrate, the sample should still be treated with care.
One should test whenever the water is used by a pregnant or nursing woman or an infant; when there has been a flood or prolonged drought; when there has been a chemical accident or spill; when a neighbor’s well is found to be contaminated; or when there is a noticeable change in odor, taste, or color.
Test kits are also available that can provide relatively reliable analysis on site, without sending a water sample to a lab. These low-cost screening kits are helpful in identifying water supplies that need additional testing at a certified lab. However, the kits are less accurate for water with high iron or dissolved minerals, and care must be taken to recognize and explain that the analysis does not have the quality assurance of a certified lab. The kits are useful in educating residents about the need for regular water tests and in promoting community awareness.
Monitor the water levels in your well. Municipal wells that have been drilled throughout Vancouver have drained the aquifer levels to the point that private wells run dry. Low water levels in your well can increase the concentration of sediments and toxic pollutants that can easily make the water too dangerous for human consumption.
Shallow, older wells are more likely to pose a health risk, because shallow groundwater may become more easily contaminated and metal casings in older wells may have deteriorated over time. Surveys have found that private wells less than 50 feet deep or more than 40 years old are more likely to be contaminated with nitrate or bacteria. However, a deep well is no guarantee against contamination from surface sources if the well is not properly constructed or maintained. If a deep well is properly constructed and still contains nitrate, the source of contamination may be a considerable distance away and difficult or impossible to locate.
Sandpoint wells are common in many areas. A sandpoint consists of a well screen on the end of a pipe that is pounded, or driven, into sandy soil where the water table is near the surface. Usually sandpoints are less than 30 feet deep and are frequently less than 15. Property owners may still drive their own sandpoint, but it is not recommended. A well installed by the homeowner must meet all Health Department requirements and the Health Department must be notified of the installation. For FHA requirements, sandpoints have not been accepted on applications for new construction. Cisterns and holding tanks are also not allowed under FHA requirements.
In older homes, the wellhead is often located in the basement or under the back steps. New wells or replacements may not be drilled within the foundation and must meet Health Department requirements for separation distances from the house, sewers, septic system, and other water bodies.
For more information on testing your well water, please contact the Clark County Health Department.
When Water is Unsafe
If testing shows a private well supply is bacterially unsafe, residents should immediately find an alternative source of drinking water. They may purchase bottled water or carry water from a safe supply. Next, the source of the contamination should be identified and eliminated, if possible. The well should be upgraded or the casing replaced, if necessary. Water may be treated to reduce or eliminate some contaminants that cause a health risk. Water treatment systems are not recommended for bacterially unsafe water. Disinfection is recommended first; then if necessary drilling a new well or connecting to a community water supply.
Treatment alternatives include disinfection (for living organisms such as bacteria and viruses); filtration; distillation; and conditioning (water softening). Different methods are appropriate for different types of contaminants and some are more effective than others. Residents should consider whether the water is being treated to reduce or remove contaminants that present a health risk or those that merely make the water unpalatable
Disinfection by chemicals, heat, or light is effective in killing bacteria found in water, but does not remove nitrate. Shock or continuous chlorination, boiling, and ultraviolet light may all disinfect water supplies contaminated with living organisms, but will not reduce levels of minerals, metals, or man-made chemicals. Distillation will disinfect water and reduce levels of many contaminants.
Boiling water contaminated with bacteria is recommended, but boiling water contaminated with both bacteria and nitrate is not safe. Boiling increases the level of nitrate because nitrate is not a living organism that can be killed through disinfection. Thus, the remaining water contains a greater concentration of nitrate than it did before boiling.
Distillation, reverse osmosis, or an iron exchange unit (not water softeners) can reduce nitrate levels. Filtration does not remove nitrate, nor does allowing the water to stand in a container.
Monitor Your Septic Tanks
Municipalities with septic management ordinances report that the most important aspect of implementing the ordinance is extensive education and outreach to residents. Septic ordinances are difficult to enforce unless residents understand the potential for environmental contamination and serious health risks. The Rosemere Neighborhood Association compiled this information as a means of public outreach and education.
Malfunctioning septic systems are a common source of groundwater contamination by bacteria (like e.coli), viruses or parasites. Microorganisms also get into the water via feedlots or other sources of animal waste. While it is sometimes possible to repair septics, it is often necessary to relocate the septic or dig a new well. Water conservation to prevent overload of the system, and regular maintenance and pumping of the septic system are imperative to protect surrounding water quality. Improperly sited and maintained septic systems can discharge contaminants into ground and surface water, and septic malfunction can also cause fish advisories and beach closings.
Septic tanks that are not monitored and inspected by homeowners can malfunction and cause groundwater contamination. Septic Tanks in the Burnt Bridge Creek Basin are not being properly maintained or inspected. The result of this problem is that human waste is leaching directly into Burnt Bridge Creek, and then into Vancouver Lake. Vancouver Lake is not fit for human contact, even though it is a public swimming and fishing area.
The Clark County Health Department, the responsible party for maintenance of records pertaining to operating septic tanks in this area, does not have accurate records of septic inspections for the approximately 9000 septic tanks in the Burnt Bridge Creek Basin, and there are homes where the septic systems have not been inspected as required. Septic tanks have erupted in this basin causing serious health risk and property damage, both in and out of doors.
Most individual septic systems consist of a septic tank and a septic drain field. The purpose of the septic tank is to separate the solids from the liquids and to promote partial breakdown of contaminants by microorganisms naturally present in wastewater. The wastewater solids, known as sludge, collect on the bottom of the tank.
The liquid, or effluent, moves from the septic tank either by gravity, or by pumping into a subsurface drain field where a perforated pipe disperses it. The drain field’s size and depth is supposed to be determined by the size of the septic tank, the soils, geology and groundwater levels. However, in Vancouver’s inner city neighborhoods, small lot sizes in high density areas do not allow for the appropriate dimensions in drain fields to insure a functional and environmentally sound septic system. Furthermore, the geology of the Burnt Bridge Creek Basin does not allow septic tanks to function properly. A hard layer of clay beneath the ground’s surface causes septic effluent to slide swiftly underground and travel directly to the nearby creek. This problem is often compounded when the septic discharge is introduced into the stormdrain system, as it has been proven to do in the Rosemere Neighborhood. The septic drain fields are supposed to allow the soil to treat wastewater through physical, chemical and biological processes, but this is not happening properly in the Burnt Bridge Creek Basin. It is also supposed to filter out many of the viruses, bacteria and nutrients before the effluent reaches the groundwater, but that is also not happening consistently in Vancouver as indicated by water quality tests.
Even though septic tanks are not designed for high urban density areas because of these risks, the Burnt Bridge Creek Basin has far too many septic tanks and cesspools in operation, and an unknown quantity of these septic systems are malfunctioning and poisoning our watershed. Cesspools were commonly used many years ago. They are simply underground pits with open-jointed linings that receive septage. The effluent leaches into the surrounding soil while the solids are retained in the pit. Cesspools do not connect to a septic field but simply allow the liquid to escape through the open joints and directly into the ground. Regulations in other parts of the country outlaw cesspools and require replacement of old cesspools when they are found to be in use. There are cesspools currently in operation in the Rosemere Neighborhood of Vancouver, as they have been, uncorrected, for many years.
Septic systems should not be allowed where they can adversely effect natural features such as low-lying areas with ponds or freshwater wetlands, flat low-lying areas adjoining streams, or high groundwater areas. The Burnt Bridge Creek contains such natural water features, and therefore, all septic tanks and cesspools should be removed that are closest to these water features. Septic tanks should also be adequately distanced from water courses, water supply lines, reservoirs and wells in order to prevent contamination of drinking water sources.
The following toxic substances should never be flushed down a toilet where a septic tank is in use: industrial waste, material from photo processing, dry cleaning or printing chemicals, furniture stripping material, auto paint, or grease from cooking waste.
Local officials need to adopt and implement ordinances to insure the maintenance of on-site septic systems and to avoid non-point source pollution. Septic management is especially important as Clark County’s population increases due to rapid development. Wherever possible, septic systems must be replaced with sanitary sewer systems. Thus far, septic ordinances in Vancouver and Clark County are inconsistent with long-range development plans, and current ordinances are not being enforced, especially in regard to wellhead protections.
Basic septic management consists primarily of regular pumping of septic tanks. This simple management requirement can vastly improve septic system function and protect the environment. The septic system’s function is drastically limited if the tank is not properly maintained. If the sludge level in the bottom of the tank builds up to the outlet pipe that carries the liquid to the septic field, the sludge will be carried to the field and will block release of the liquid. The liquid may then overflow the tank , or may leak out to the surface of the septic field. Such septic overflow has happened in Rosemere, as well as other Vancouver neighborhoods. The tank is susceptible to damage caused by solvents, which kill the active bacteria essential to the breakdown of sludge. Garbage disposals can overload the tank. Grease and oils can clog vital tank components.
Even properly functioning septic systems can pollute water, primarily through release of excess nitrates. High nitrate concentrations in groundwater can flow to surface waters or wells. At concentrations in excess of 45 mg/l nitrate can be fatally toxic to infants 6 months of younger. High nitrate levels can lead to serious illness and sometimes death in young children. Boiling water can make the nitrates more concentrated, so bottled water should be used.
Nitrate occurs in the soil, crop residues, human or animal wastes, some industrial wastes, and nitrogen fertilizers. All are possible sources of nitrate, which is soluble and moves easily with surface and groundwater. Although nitrate itself is not harmful to humans, certain bacteria change nitrate to nitrite in the digestive tract. Infants under six months of age have weak stomach acids that allow those nitrate-reducing bacteria to grow and produce nitrite. When nitrite is absorbed into the blood, it reduces the ability of hemoglobin (red oxygen-carrying blood pigment) to carry oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body. This change in the blood is described as a change from hemoglobin to methemoglobin.
Thus, some infants under six months of age are especially susceptible to excess nitrate in water and may develop a condition called methemoglobinemia, or “blue-baby” syndrome. Methemoglobinemia produces a bluish color around the lips, spreads to the fingers, toes, and face, and in extreme cases, covers the entire body. In severe cases, the infant is unable to obtain sufficient oxygen and may die. Unfortunately, methemoglobinemia remains a potential threat for infants in various parts of the country, although many people believe it is a concern of the past. In older children and adults, nitrate is not converted to nitrite in appreciable amounts and has not been shown to be a health risk. However, little is known about the long-term risks or chronic health effects of drinking water high in nitrate.
Evidence of elevated nitrate levels has been found in shallow wells in Vancouver in the vicinity of Lagler’s Dairy near 90th St off of NE 117th Ave. Private wells southwest of the dairy (tests taken in the early 1990’s) indicated nitrate-nitrogen levels that were well above the maximum contaminant level of 10 mg/l. The soil in the area is very gravelly, thus causing rapid movement of groundwater. Well water samples collected included contaminant levels of nitrate as high as 49.5 mg/l. Several of the private wells tested showed similar results. Inspectors observed and photographed cow manure being sprayed onto the fields east of the shallow private wells. The nitrate contamination of the private wells was a direct result of contaminants from the sprayed cow manure that had leached into the groundwater. Another problem related to elevated levels of nitrates is that such occurrences may also be indicators for the presence of ECB’s (ethelynedibromide). This highly carcinogenic chemical is very water soluble and is found in agricultural fertilizers.
Additional Human Health Risks from Exposure to Contaminated Water
Lead
Concern about elevated concentrations of lead in water supplies occurs in areas with older water distribution systems, older homes (such as in the Rosemere Neighborhood), or corrosive water supplies. Water quality testing in Rosemere has indicated high levels of lead in older homes due to lead-based casings in bathtubs and lead solder in indoor pipes. Water for municipal supplies must meet the USEPA Primary Drinking Water Standards for contaminants when it is distributed. However, as water stands in the service pipelines and household plumbing, it may accumulate dissolved lead.
Throughout the early 1900s it was common to use lead piping for residential plumbing and for service connections to public water supplies. Since the 1930s, copper pipe has replaced lead pipe for almost all residential uses. However, lead-based solder was used to join copper piping until it was banned in 1985. Thus, older homes are more likely to have indoor lead plumbing or lead-based solder. In some neighborhoods, lead service lines connecting homes to water mains in the street are still common.
Lead is a toxic metal that serves no known useful function in the body. Accumulation of lead can cause damage to the nervous or gastrointestinal system, kidney, or red blood cells. In extreme cases, it may lead to blindness, mental retardation, or death. Even moderate levels of lead may cause learning difficulties and stunted growth, or may endanger fetal development. Children, infants, and fetuses are the most sensitive populations.
In 1991, the USEPA changed the primary drinking water standard for lead to reflect concern about lead accumulating as water stands in pipes or plumbing. The previous standard of 50 parts per billion (ppb) applied to water as it was distributed from municipal water systems. The new standard for lead is different from other drinking water standards and requires monitoring of lead concentration at high risk locations throughout the distribution system. The new rule requires that in at least 90 percent of the monitored households, lead levels at the tap must not exceed 15 ppb. This type of household monitoring does not occur in the Rosemere neighborhood, and it may not happen in the rest of Vancouver.
Residents may not be able to remove lead completely from their drinking water supply, but the risk of exposure can be easily reduced. The cold water tap should be run for 2 to 3 minutes before using the water for drinking or cooking, particularly first thing in the morning. This will flush out lead that has accumulated in the pipes overnight. Water from the hot water tap should not be used for cooking, baking, or preparing baby formula because hot water dissolves lead more readily than cold water. To obtain hot water, they should use cold water and heat it on the top of the range or in the microwave.
Replacing the old plumbing and/or lead solder will help reduce the levels of lead in drinking water, but may not eliminate it completely if there are lead service pipes. Replacing plumbing may also be very expensive. Point-of-use water treatment may be effective in reducing high concentrations of lead in drinking water. Two recommended treatment methods are reverse osmosis and distillation systems.
Residents living in an older home can have the water supply or plumbing system tested. Check with the municipal water department to determine whether households in your area are at risk from lead distribution mains or lead service pipes. Tests measuring lead levels in blood are available and may be appropriate for children and pregnant women. Physicians or community health professionals may be able to offer further guidelines for testing.
Microorganisms: Viruses, Bacteria, and Parasites
The safety of our drinking water is often taken for granted in America. In recent years, however, environmentalists and the media have drawn attention to the dangers of ground water pollution and the health risks of lead, chlorine, pesticides, organic chemicals, and various microorganisms that have been found to contaminate our public water supplies. Outbreaks of waterborne diseases are a common occurrence and have involved entire city populations, sometimes leading to serious complications and even fatalities. The potential carcinogenic effects of long-term exposure to certain organic chemicals in our water supplies are under government scrutiny.
The examination of water samples for viruses takes a minimum or two weeks and the tests are not completely reliable. Bacteriological monitoring is used as the conventional indicator of potable water safety, but viruses are more resistant to water treatment processes than bacteria and may escape detection. Enteric viruses may be present in drinking water without signs of bacterial pollution.
The recycling of waste water for domestic use, now employed in some States with water shortages, may increase the risk of virus contamination. One large beer producer in Southern California, with serious doubts about the purity of the reclaimed water used in manufacture of its product, has filed a lawsuit in Los Angeles to stop the practice of recycling sewer water. . . . Since 80 percent of beer is water, breweries may have to conduct their own tests for viral, bacterial, and parasitic, as well as chemical contamination, so that jokes about “beer made from sewer water” can be dispelled.
Parasites are the most frequently identified cause of waterborne diseases in the United States. The 1993 outbreak of the parasite Cryptosporidium affected almost half a million people and contributed to one hundred deaths in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The outbreak resulted from the failure of the municipal filtration systems to eliminate animal wastes. The water rather suddenly became brownish. Cautious people would have immediately sought out bottled water. Keep notice of any changes to tastes or color of household drinking water. Please note that the water filtration system at the Milwaukee plant was state-of-the-art.
People salvaging waterlogged or flooded properties should take some simple precautions, including getting a tetanus shot to avoid serious diseases. Tetanus, a bacterial illness that affects the central nervous system, is a risk following a puncture wound or cut. The state health department recommends a tetanus booster every 10 years. Surface water picks up soil, animal feces and human sewage. Bacteria, viruses and other illness-causing organisms generally must get inside the body to cause sickness. Wading in, or having direct contact with contaminated water can cause illness, especially if you have cuts or other open skin wounds on your body.
Contamination from Duck Ponds in Vancouver, WA
The Rosemere Neighborhood Association, Addy Labs, and local water watchers have recorded and reported a significant contaminate issue at the Thunderbird Village Apartment Complex, 4601 E 18th Street, Vancouver WA. This is a very large apartment complex with duck ponds situated at the center of the complex. This complex sits adjacent to Burnt Bridge Creek. The duck ponds are designed to draw water right from Burnt Bridge Creek, and this water is used to cycle and flush the pond. The outfall from this pond is then dumped back into Burnt Bridge Creek. According to the Washington State Department of Ecology, the apartment complex has a valid water rights permit in place to draw water from the creek for recreational purposes.
(1) Waterfall that draws water from Burnt Bridge Creek to fill the duck ponds. (2) One of the Ponds at Thunderbird Village located at the center of the complex.
Burnt Bridge Creek is an endangered creek, listed on the 303(d) list of threatened or impaired waterbodies. The creek suffers from e-coli contamination, and it has been proven that a large percentage of this e-coli is the product of human waste that comes from failed septic tanks or cesspools in the watershed. One of the concerns with the apartment complex’s duck pond system is that the pond’s outfall back into the creek is dumping a vast quantity of fecal colifrom (e.coli) back into the already endangered creek. The source of fecal coliform, in this instance, is from the hundreds of ducks that regularly frequent these ponds. Water samples collected by Addy Labs have shown fecal coliform levels to be far in excess of federal standards.
According to the EPA, the maximum contaminant level for human contact is 126 fecal coliform per 100 mls. The outfall from this duck pond system measures 24,000 fecal coliform per 100 mls. This is very dangerous for human contact, especially since the ponds are in the center of the apartment complex and access to these dwellings is within just a few feet of the water’s edge. Residents of the area have regular and direct contact with this contaminated water.
(1) Intake pipe (silver) in Burnt Bridge Creek that feeds the Duck Ponds (2) Outflow pipe dumping e.coli into Creek from the duck ponds
According to the Clark County Health Department, the following diseases are the most likely candidates for transmission to people in contact with ducks and swans:
- Salmonellosis: symptoms include bloody diarrhea, fever, abdominal cramping.
- Ornithosis: symptoms include fever, headache, muscle aches, chills and upper or lower respiratory tract disease.
- Mycobacteria Avium: symptoms for immunosuppressed persons are similar to tuberculosis and include cough, weight loss, night sweats and fatigue.
Contaminated water from these duck ponds is being dumped into an already heavily polluted creek. The end result is that the high concentrations of e.coli are flowing downstream via Burnt Bridge Creek (a relatively small stream) and into Vancouver Lake, which is a public swimming area. This is not only a very dangerous health hazard, but it also has serious adverse environmental impacts. Dumping such concentrations of fecal coliform back into state controlled stream is against state law and local environmental ordinances and is also in Violation of the Clean Water Act. This problem has been ongoing for many, many years. The local office of the Department of Ecology has been aware of the problem, and the Clark County Health Department (formerly the Southwest Washington Health District) has also known of the problem for years, but no corrective action has been taken that we are aware of.
The Washington State Department of Ecology told the Rosemere Neighborhood Association that the problem needed to be referred to the Health Department since it was e.coli related. The Washington State Health Department said the problem was under the jurisdiction of the Department of Ecology since it was related to a state water resource (Burnt Bridge Creek). Both agencies referred back to the other, a frustrating situation that frequently happens in southwest Washington. Both agencies complain that they do not have the resources to address the problem, and therefore, the “do nothing” approach has been the method of operation on this subject for years.
Bottled Water
Government regulations regarding bottled water are often less stringent than those for public water systems. The former is controlled by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the latter by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Their regulations can differ somewhat. One third of all bottled water sold in the United States is actually taken from a public water system. However, if the bottled water does come from a deep, protected aquifer, it is less likely to be contaminated than a public water system that is derived from surface water. Upland surface water and polluted river sources that have been chlorinated carry the highest risk of cancer. Unchlorinated ground water has the lowest cancer risk.
When you use bottled water, choose glass bottles. Even when the water is from an excellent source, storing it in plastic causes contamination. It may surprise consumers to realize the enormous potential for risk of intoxication from a multitude of migrant chemicals contained in plastic containers. Government regulation has reduced some of these risks. However, methylene chloride (a carcinogen) may enter bottled water from the polycarbonate resin in certain plastic bottles, and bacteria may multiply during prolonged storage.
Aluminum
In water treatment plants, coagulants are employed in order to increase the efficiency of filtration. The use of aluminum and iron salts, sulfates, and polymers in the purification of water may introduce hazards in some individuals, particularly when coagulants are present in high concentration. Aluminum in treated surface water varies widely, and levels higher than 0.2 mg/L cause discoloration. Water with higher levels may induce encephalopathy [degenerative brain disease] and dementia in patients with kidney disease undergoing dialysis. Aluminum has been linked with Alzheimer’s disease. Vancouver has been home to aluminum plants, and the area groundwater surrounding these plants indicates contamination from this highly toxic substance. One defunct aluminum plant is sited on the shores of the Columbia River. Thus, aluminum contaminant has probably been introduced into the Columbia’s flow, as well as various contiguous tributaries.
Air Stripping
Air stripping, also called aeration, removes volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as trichlorethylene and tetrachloroethylene from water by transferring them to the air. It does not remove non-volatile organic chemicals, of equal or greater concern than VOCs.
Radon is also removed from ground water by air stripping and may pose a risk to treatment plant workers inhaling contaminated air in the proximity of the aeration system. The inhalation of radon is more toxic than ingestion and the risk of radon-related lung cancer may be increased.
Mercury
Mercury is discharged into rivers and lakes from many industrial sources including pulp and paper mills, such as those found in Camas and Washougal, WA. Mercury itself and some mercury compounds have low toxicity. However, they can be changed into the highly toxic methylmercury by microorganisms in the water and in the digestive tracts of animals. Methylmercury penetrates the blood-brain barrier and 10 percent accumulates in the brain, causing irreversible central nervous system damage.
Methylmercury accumulates in fish and fish-eating birds and animals. At each step of the food chain there is a bioaccumulation of mercury. The amount of mercury found in fish may be 3,000 times the original concentration in the contaminated water. Since methylmercury is 1,000 times more soluble in fats than in water, it concentrates in muscle and brain tissue. Fish caught in the Columbia River Estuary and the Flushing Channel show elevated levels of mercury (among 9 other toxic substances) that far exceed EPA standards. Fish contaminated with mercury from industrial wastes and agricultural insecticides has become a source of concern in the US. Recent tests of lake water by the EPA were positive for mercury in 90 percent of samples from 380 different sources in Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, and Wisconsin.
At first the symptoms of mercury poisoning are subtle and diagnosis is difficult. Insomnia, nervousness, tremor, impaired judgment, loss of sexual drive, and depression are symptoms often mistakenly ascribed to psychological causes. Then, the patient develops a metallic taste, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, and skin rash. Later, symptoms from chronic exposure include a progressive unsteadiness of gait and slurred speech; delusions and hallucinations; and inflammation of the nerves of the extremities associated with loss of sensation, numbness, and pain in the hands and feet.
Preventive measures for mercury poisoning include:
- Ban disposal of industrial mercurial wastes in waterways.
- Test inland lakes and other fisheries for mercury and especially methylmercury and issue timely warnings and fishing regulations.
- Reduce the mercury content of poultry and seafoods, which account for nearly all the mercury intake of Americans.
- Eat lake fish sparingly and avoid fish caught from waterways known to have high mercury levels.
- Avoid mercury exposure from agricultural chemicals, occupational sources, mercury-containing latex paint, dental amalgams, medicines, thermometers, and household products.
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides are the most ubiquitous and persistent pesticides in the environment. As an example, traces of DDT have been recovered from dust in the atmosphere that has drifted over thousands of miles and contaminated water formed from melted snow in the Antarctic.
DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbons are fat soluble. They concentrate in the tissues of animals and are transferred along the food chain, killing fish, birds, and mammals. DDT can bioaccumulate in fish to levels more than 10,000 times the concentration in their aquatic habitat. Biological magnification is the term used for this increased concentration of chemicals as they ascend the food chain from small to larger animals. The levels in human milk may exceed the legal limits permitted in cows’ milk. In fact, an analysis of human milk may be the most accurate measure of the extent of contamination of our environment by pesticide residues and other toxic chemicals.
Perchlorate Contamination
Perchlorate is an oxygen-rich chemical used in rocket fuel, ammunition, fireworks, flares and other explosives. It easily dissolves in water, which means that the annual fireworks display in Vancouver, one of largest on the west coast, is introducing high levels of perchlorate contamination directly into the Columbia River. Aerial explosions (windborn contaminants) of these fireworks are carrying the toxin and distributing as a fine powder showers over land and surface water. Perchlorate contamination has been discovered in 22 states where it was manufactured and handled. In areas where there are military defense contractors, munitions storage or munitions dumps (such as Camp Bonneville in Clark County), the surrounding groundwater has perchlorate contaminants. Camp Bonneville has a large underground perchlorate plume.
Perchlorate is made up of chlorine and oxygen, and can combine with sodium, potassium or ammonium to form salts. Ammonium perchlorate is the form most frequently used in rocket fuel. The salt is a toxin, but there is disagreement about how much is harmful when ingested. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is creating drinking water standards for the pollutant. The EPA’s perchlorate coordinator for the Southwest, Kevin Mayer, says “There’s absolutely no question that it is a very big risk.” The EPA is considering a standard of one part per billion of perchlorate, which would be the equivalent of a grain of salt in an Olympic-sized pool. According to the EPA, bathing in water contaminated with perchlorate is not a direct threat since one’s skin provides a barrier.
Scientists know perchlorate interferes with the way the body takes iodide into the thyroid and can disrupt the gland’s regulation of metabolism. In developing fetuses and newborns, iodine (the body reduces iodide to iodine) deficiency can cause mental retardation. A 2000 Arizona study found an increase in abnormal thyroid levels in Yuma, Ariz., newborns whose mothers drank water from the Colorado River that contained five to seven parts per billion perchlorate. Doctors warn that pregnant women should not drink water contaminated with perchlorate.
There is no state or federal requirement that bottled water be tested for perchlorate, although some bottlers can do so voluntarily. Mountain spring water is unlikely to contain the toxin. Tainted tap water that has been distilled or treated by reverse osmosis and then bottled is likely to be free of the toxin. Carbon filtering removes little or no perchlorate from polluted water. Cooking with perchlorate-laced water poses the same risk as drinking. However, when food is cooked and drained, any perchlorate would likely remain with the water.
Risks of Waterborne Disease
Waterborne diseases continue to present challenges to public health officials and water suppliers. The presence of disease-causing microorganisms in tap water typically results from poor source water quality, lapses in disinfection and filtration treatment processes, or compromised distribution systems. In most instances, outbreaks of waterborne diseases occur in water systems with inadequate or no disinfection. However, there are new concerns about emerging pathogens, such as Cryptosporidium, that appear even in high-quality water supplies.
Waterborne pathogens that cause disease fall into three general classes – bacteria, viruses and parasitic protozoa, each with various identified species: Bacteria and viruses contaminate both surface and groundwater, whereas parasitic protozoa appear predominantly in surface water.
Waterborne Pathogens
| Bacteria | Viruses | Protozoa |
| Campylobacter | Norwalk-like | Cryptosporidium parvum |
| Escherichia coli | Entero (poliomyelitis, coxsackie, echo, rotavirus) |
Giarda lamblia |
| Salmonella (nontyphoid) | Hepatitis A | Entamoeba histolytica |
| Shigella | Reovirus | |
| Yersinia | ||
| Vibrio (noncholera) | ||
| Salmonella (typhoid) | ||
| Vibrio (cholera) | ||
| Legionella |
Illnesses Associated with Waterborne Pathogens
All waterborne microbial pathogens are potentially infectious and capable of causing illness depending on the dose and the physical condition of the individuals exposed. It should be stressed that exposure to waterborne pathogens does not always mean infection, nor does infectivity always lead to clinical illness. Although the dose-response mechanism is still not fully understood, scientists estimate that the risk of waterborne microbial illness in the United States is approximately 1 in 1 thousand individuals. Of those infected in the general population, the mortality risk is 1 in 1 thousand (as compared to a mortality risk of 1 in 1 million for uninfected individuals).
Bacteria and protozoa generally induce gastrointestinal disorders with a wide range of severity. Bacteria also cause life-threatening diseases such as typhoid and cholera. Viruses cause serious diseases such as aseptic meningitis, encephalitis, poliomyelitis, hepatitis, myocarditis and diabetes. In addition, gastrointestinal disorders may be attributed to unidentified or unspecified microorganisms. In terms of occurrence, protozoan infections are the most common, followed by bacterial infections and then viral infections.
For most pathogens, the severity of illness ranges from mild gastrointestinal upset, fever and vomiting, and intermittent diarrhea to chronic diarrhea, dehydration, liver damage, acute respiratory illness, adverse neurological effects, depressed immune systems and death. Most healthy individuals in the general population usually experience only mild gastroenteritis that is easily controlled and of short duration.
On the other hand, certain segments of the population are especially vulnerable to acute illness (morbidity) and can exhibit high death (mortality) rates. These segments include pregnant women, infants, the elderly and those whose immune systems are compromised by cancer, AIDS, fibromyalgia, neurological disorders, or the drugs used to treat these and other conditions.
Occurrence
Some occurrence statistics exist for outbreaks of waterborne diseases, but public health and water authorities generally must deal with unreliable estimates. Among the difficulties encountered when trying to determine the extent of waterborne disease occurrence in the United States is that illnesses often go unreported or may only be attributed to unknown causes (etiology).
Etiology of Waterborne Outbreaks in USA, 1971-1992
| Etiology | Outbreaks | Cases of Illness | Hospitalized Cases | Deaths |
| Undetermined | 341 | 82,486 | 253 | 0 |
| Protozoan | 127 | 43,952 | 67 | 0 |
| Bacterial* | 98 | 19,351 | 720 | 6 |
| Viral | 58 | 14,167 | 85 | 0 |
| Chemical** | 60 | 4,202 | 45 | 6 |
| TOTAL | 684 | 164,158 | 1,170 | 12 |
* E. coli, shigellosis
** Not DBPs
Waterborne disease outbreaks are estimated to occur three to ten times more often than reported. This may be due to patients not seeking medical attention or physicians failing to properly diagnose or test for specific infectious agents. Acute gastroenteritis often is labeled a viral illness, although very limited data exist on the presence of viruses in water supplies. Tracking often falls by the wayside when limited public resources are redirected to other public health needs. In addition, not all states require regular reporting of microbial disease outbreaks.
Data on waterborne disease outbreaks have been compiled by Gunther F. Craun, a water expert formerly with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The following tables illustrate occurrence, pathogenic agents identified with cases of illness and causes of outbreaks from 1971 to 1992 in the United States. It should be noted that these data do not include the outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in Milwaukee in 1993 (400,000 infected persons).
Etiologic Agents Most Frequently Identified in Waterborne Outbreaks of Infectious Diseases in USA, 1971-1992
| Etiologic Agent | Outbreaks | Cases of Illness |
| Giardia lamblia | 118 | 26,733 |
| Shigella | 57 | 9,967 |
| Norwalk-like virus | 24 | 10,908 |
| Hepatitis A | 29 | 807 |
| Campylobacter | 13 | 5,257 |
| Salmonella | 12 | 2,370 |
| Cryptosporidium parvum | 7 | 17,194 |
| All others* | 23 | 4,243 |
| TOTAL | 283 | 77,479 |
*Toxigenic E. coli, Yersinia, rotavirus, S. typhi, V. cholera and others
At least 50% of waterborne disease outbreaks are attributed to “unknown etiology.” Where the cause has been identified, Giardia lamblia accounts for the highest number of cases. Cryptosporidium parvum ranks second even without post-1992 data. Those numbers will likely grow as the population classified as vulnerable increases.
Causes of Waterborne Outbreaks in USA, 1971-92
| Causes of Outbreak | Percent of Outbreaks | |
| Community Water Systems | Non-Community Water Systems | |
| Contamination of distribution system | 29% | 7% |
| Inadequate disinfection of unfiltered surface water |
24% | 8% |
| Inadequate disinfection of groundwater | 14% | 30% |
| Untreated groundwater | 11% | 42% |
| Inadequate filtration of surface water | 11% | 1% |
| Miscellaneous; unknown causes | 5% | 6% |
| Inadequate chemical feed | 3% | 1% |
| Untreated surface water | 2% | 5% |
| Inadequate filtration of groundwater | 1% | 0% |
| TOTAL | 100% | 100% |
Studies by Gunther F. Craun also matched outbreaks with source water and treatment techniques in community water systems. For systems using surface water, source contamination and treatment deficiencies were identified as the major causative agents. Untreated or inadequately treated groundwater was responsible for 10-14% of all outbreaks during the 1971-92 period. Overall during the period, contaminated, untreated and inadequately treated groundwater was responsible for more outbreaks than contaminated surface water.
Prevention and Control
Eliminating and preventing contamination of water supplies is critically important. Under EPA’s Total Coliform Rule, maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) and routine monitoring have formed the basis for controlling microbiological contamination of public water supplies. EPA uses the presence or absence of “indicator” bacteria, e.g., E.coli, to verify whether drinking water is pathogen-free and safe.
On January 20, 2000, the Washington State Department of Health wrote to the City of Vancouver relating information about an investigation into drinking water tests. The letter states that on 12/15/99, a positive E.-coli sample was obtained at Water Station 9 (chlorine residual in the sample was about 1.0/mg/l). And on 1/5/2000, a positive fecal coliform sample was obtained at the Ben Franklin School dedicated sample station. (chlorine residual in the sample was 1.3mg/l). The investigation did not yield a firm reason why these incidents of contamination to the drinking water supply occurred. No other samples taken from these sites at that time were positive, and the phenomena could not be explained.
Contamination of the well at Columbia River High School (in Hazel Dell) was reported in the early 1980′s. The school converted to city water service and then only used the well water to irrigate the football field. The source of this contamination was, again, related to septic tank failures in the area. Despite the fact that the contaminated water is being used only for irrigation on this site, the contaminant can (and does) enter the groundwater and can travel throughout the aquifer. The Columbia River High School well is near Cougar Creek, which feeds into Salmon Creek, and then into Vancouver Lake. This contaminated well, therefore, is further evidence of how septic waste can travel. The Rosemere Neighborhood Association has requested additional information from the Washington State Health Department regarding any similar investigations or reports of contamination dating from 1990 through present day. Once obtained, the information will be added to this report.
A U.S. Groundwater Survey (USGS) was conducted between 1987-1990 to study all municipal wells in Clark County and the City of Vancouver, as well as many wells on private property. The Clark Public Utilities District (PUD) and the City of Vancouver manage most of the municipal drinking water wells in the area. During the course of the USGS survey, a huge problem was discovered with the main municipal drinking water well in the Hazel Dell area. According to Clark PUD staff, this particular well produced 60% of all the drinking water in Clark County. In the Spring of 1993, various government representatives met in a regularly scheduled non-public staff meeting at the Clark PUD Headquarters to discuss water utility supply issues in Clark County. During this staff meeting, these representatives acknowledged that the USGS had discovered high concentrations of nitrates in many wells throughout Clark County. The Clark PUD performed its own tests on the main Hazel Dell well and confirmed that it contained high concentrations of nitrates (resulting from septic tanks) in the vicinity of the well. These concentrations were higher than state standards. Staff made the decision to close this well and to quickly drill new wellheads elsewhere to make up for the loss. There was also concern that contamination from the Boomsnub Superfund site was moving toward the main wellhead through groundwater. Boomsnub had contaminated the ground water in that area with hexavalent chromium, refrigerants, and PCC’s (among others).
The City of Vancouver has drilled municipal wells that have interfered with private property, and drained hundreds of private wells dry making them completely unusable to the property owners. This forced these property owners onto city water service, and the city paid for the conversion fees. However, the abandoned wells were never properly abated, as required. Instead, the city opted to simply call these abandoned wells “test” wells, since “test” wells are not required to be abated. Proper abatement is expensive, and this expense is owed by the city to these private property owners. Yet, those dangerous abandoned wells sit without due attention.
Epidemiologists have now traced waterborne disease outbreaks to water supplies that did not exceed the Maximum Contaminant Load for total coliforms or turbidity and met all water quality standards. Cryptosporidium parvum, Giardia lamblia and viruses have been found in disinfected water where indicator bacteria were absent.
The best-known example of this phenomenon was the 1993 cryptosporidiosis outbreak in Milwaukee that infected over 400,000 residents and killed over 100, most of whom were immunocompromised individuals. That outbreak was traced to a combination of a “spike” of Cryptosporidium occysts in the raw water, perhaps related to a runoff event from agricultural areas, and process control difficulties. Although turbidity increased in the finished water, the city’s water supply did not exceed EPA’s coliform Maximum Contaminant Load, nor were the turbidities in violation at any time.
The City of Battle Ground, WA has had yearly occurrence of cryptosporidium. This may be due to the fact that the areas public water lines were running in the same ditches as the sanitary sewers. The aquifer in Battle Ground is very shallow, and the water, therefore, does not have adequate to soil to filter out the contaminants. Furthermore, numerous septic tanks in the surrounding basin, many of which leak septic effluent, may contribute active ingredients that allow the cryptosporidium to grow. Estimates show that water that is flushed down a septic system in Battle Ground reaches the groundwater and is introduced into the aquifer that supplies the public’s drinking water within a six month period.
Another outbreak of cryptosporidiosis occurred in Clark County (Las Vegas), Nevada, in 1994, resulting in 78 cases, of which 61 were AIDS patients. Epidemiologists remain puzzled by this outbreak since no Cryptosporidium occysts could be detected in either raw or finished water supplies, nor were coliform Maximum Contaminant Loads exceeded. Furthermore, the area’s source water is exceptionally high quality, and the Las Vegas water treatment facility is state-of-the-art.
Drinking water facilities work to achieve the goal of minimal risk in water supplies by removing contaminants and mitigating disease outcomes with a coordinated multi-barrier approach to risk management and public health protection. An EPA report, National Drinking Water Program Redirection Strategy, released in June 1996 highlighted the need for a nationwide commitment to water quality improvement.
EPA’s recommended action steps for the delivery of high-quality drinking water include:
- Using improved science and risk assessment methods for future standard setting.
- Protecting source water through systematic watershed management practices for both surface water and groundwater.
- Targeting resources to control the greatest public health risks, especially microbial contaminants such as Cryptosporidium.
- Encouraging affordable technologies for small water systems and regulatory streamlining for chemical monitoring.
The American Academy of Microbiology adds further recommendations:
- Improve risk assessment methodology and database development for waterborne diseases.
- Employ newer methods, especially molecular genetic-based methods, to detect pathogens.
- Educate the public about the microbiological safety of water.
Industry Commitment to Safety and Public Health Protection
Responsible Care®
In 1988, the American Chemistry Council launched Responsible Care®, the most ambitious and innovative health, safety and environmental improvement initiative in American industrial history. The initiative requires continuous performance improvement in the areas of community awareness and emergency response, pollution prevention, process safety, distribution, employee health and safety, and product stewardship.
Every Responsible Care member is expected to improve performance in the following areas:
- Community awareness and emergency response (protecting employees and the public; fostering dialogue with plant community neighbors)
- Pollution prevention (reducing wastes and emissions)
- Process safety (making plants and processes safer)
- Distribution (reducing transportation and storage risks)
- Employee health and safety (protect and promote the health and safety of the industry’s employees)
- Product stewardship (ensuring better, safer products from start to finish)
